Difference between revisions of "Exodus"

<p> <strong> EXODUS </strong> . The book relates the history of [[Israel]] from the death of [[Joseph]] to the erection of the [[Tabernacle]] in the second year of the Exodus. In its present form, however, it is a harmony of three separate accounts. </p> <p> <strong> 1. The narrative of P </strong> <strong> [Note: Priestly Narrative.] </strong> . which can be most surely distinguished, is given first. </p> <p> Beginning with a list of the sons of Israel (&nbsp;Exodus 1:1-5 ), it briefly relates the oppression (&nbsp; Exodus 1:7; &nbsp; Exodus 1:13 f., &nbsp; Exodus 2:23-25 ), and describes the call of Moses, which takes place in Egypt, the revelation of the name <em> Jahweh </em> , and the appointment of [[Aaron]] (&nbsp; Exodus 6:1 to &nbsp; Exodus 7:13 ). The plagues (&nbsp; Exodus 7:10; &nbsp; Exodus 7:20 a, &nbsp; Exodus 7:21 b, &nbsp; Exodus 7:22 , &nbsp; Exodus 8:5-7; &nbsp; Exodus 8:15-19 , &nbsp; Exodus 9:8-12 , &nbsp; Exodus 11:9 f.), which are wrought by Aaron, forma trial of strength with Pharaoh’s magicians. The last plague introduces directions for the Passover, the feast of unleavened bread, the sanctification of the firstborn; and the annual [[Passover]] (&nbsp; Exodus 12:1-20; &nbsp; Exodus 12:28; &nbsp; Exodus 12:40-51 , &nbsp; Exodus 13:1 f.). Hence emphasis is laid, not on the blood-sprinkling, but on the eating, which was the perpetual feature. </p> <p> The route to the Red Sea (which gives occasion to a statement about the length of the sojourn. &nbsp;Exodus 12:40 f.) is represented as deliberately chosen in order that Israel and [[Egypt]] may witness Jahweh’s power over [[Pharaoh]] (&nbsp; Exodus 12:37 , &nbsp; Exodus 13:20 , &nbsp; Exodus 14:1-4 ). When [[Moses]] stretches out his hand, the waters are miraculously divided and restored (&nbsp; Exodus 14:8 f, &nbsp; Exodus 14:15 a, &nbsp; Exodus 14:21-22 &nbsp;Exodus 14:21-22 f., &nbsp; Exodus 14:26-27 a, &nbsp; Exodus 14:28 a, &nbsp; Exodus 15:19 ). </p> <p> Between the Red Sea and [[Sinai]] the names of some halting places are given (&nbsp;Exodus 16:1-3 , &nbsp; Exodus 17:1 a, &nbsp; Exodus 19:2 a). Ch. 16 is also largely (&nbsp; Exodus 16:6-13 a, &nbsp; Exodus 16:16-24; &nbsp; Exodus 16:31-36 ) from P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] . But the mention of the Tabernacle in &nbsp; Exodus 16:34 proves the story to belong to a later date than the stay at Sinai, since the Tabernacle was not in existence before Sinai. Probably the narrative has been brought into its present position by the editor. </p> <p> On the arrival at Sinai, Jahweh’s glory appears in a fiery cloud on the mountain. As no priests have been consecrated, and the people must not draw near, Moses ascends alone to receive the tables of the testimony (&nbsp;Exodus 24:15-18 a) written by Jahweh on both sides. He remains (probably for 40 days) to receive plans for a sanctuary, with Jahweh’s promise to meet with Israel (in the [[Tent]] of Meeting) and to dwell with Israel (in the Tabernacle) (&nbsp; Exodus 25:1 to &nbsp; Exodus 31:18 a, &nbsp; Exodus 32:15 ). He returns (&nbsp; Exodus 34:29-35 ), deposits the testimony in an ark he has caused to be prepared, and constructs the Tabernacle (&nbsp; Exodus 34:35 ). The differing order in the plans as ordered and as executed, and the condition of the text in the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] , prove that these sections underwent alterations before reaching their present form. </p> <p> This account was evidently written for men who were otherwise acquainted with the leading facts of the history. It is dominated by two leading interests: (1) to insist in its own way that everything which makes Israel a nation is due to Jahweh, so that the religion and the history are interwoven; (2) to give a history of the origins, especially of the ecclesiastical institutions, of Israel. </p> <p> <strong> 2. The narrative of JE </strong> <strong> [Note: [[Jewish]] Encyclopedia.] </strong> . The rest of the book is substantially from JE [Note: Jewish Encyclopedia.] , but it is extremely difficult to distinguish J [Note: Jahwist.] from E [Note: Elohist.] . For (1) with the revelation of the name of Jahweh, one of our criteria, the avoidance of this name by E [Note: Elohist.] disappears; (2) special care has been taken to weld the accounts of the law-giving together, and it is often difficult to decide how much is the work of the editor. We give the broad lines of the separation, but remark that in certain passages this must remain tentative. </p> <p> A. <em> Israel in Egypt </em> </p> <p> According to J [Note: Jahwist.] , the people are cattle-owners, living apart in Goshen, where they increase so rapidly as to alarm Pharaoh (&nbsp;Exodus 1:6; &nbsp; Exodus 1:8-12 ). Moses, after receiving his revelation and commission in [[Midian]] (&nbsp; Exodus 2:11-22 , &nbsp; Exodus 3:2-4 a, &nbsp; Exodus 3:7 &nbsp;Exodus 3:7 f., &nbsp; Exodus 3:16-20 , &nbsp; Exodus 4:1-16; &nbsp; Exodus 4:19-20 a, &nbsp; Exodus 4:24-26 a, &nbsp; Exodus 4:29-31 ), demands from Pharaoh liberty to depart three days’ journey to sacrifice (&nbsp; Exodus 5:3; &nbsp; Exodus 5:5-23 ). On Pharaoh’s refusal, the plagues, which are natural calamities brought by Jahweh, and which are limited to Egypt, follow Moses’ repeated announcement (&nbsp; Exodus 7:14; &nbsp; Exodus 7:16-17 a, &nbsp; Exodus 7:21 &nbsp;Exodus 7:21 a, &nbsp; Exodus 7:24 f., &nbsp; Exodus 8:1-4; &nbsp; Exodus 8:8-15 a, &nbsp; Exodus 9:7 &nbsp;Exodus 9:7 , &nbsp; Exodus 9:13-35 , &nbsp; Exodus 10:1-11; &nbsp; Exodus 10:13 b, &nbsp; Exodus 10:14 b, &nbsp; Exodus 10:15 a, &nbsp; Exodus 10:15-18 , &nbsp; Exodus 10:28 &nbsp;Exodus 10:28 f., &nbsp; Exodus 11:4-8 ). In connexion with the Passover (&nbsp; Exodus 12:21-27 ), blood-sprinkling, not eating, is insisted on. The escape is hurried (&nbsp; Exodus 12:29-34; &nbsp; Exodus 12:37-39 ), and so a historical meaning is attached to the use of unleavened bread (&nbsp; Exodus 13:3-16 [based on J [Note: Jahwist.] ]). </p> <p> According to E [Note: Elohist.] , the people live among the [[Egyptians]] as royal pensioners and without cattle. Their numbers are so small that two midwives suffice for them (&nbsp;Exodus 1:15-20 a, &nbsp; Exodus 1:21 f.) Moses (&nbsp; Exodus 2:1; &nbsp; Exodus 2:10 ), whose father-in-law is [[Jethro]] (&nbsp; Exodus 3:1 ), receives his revelation (&nbsp; Exodus 3:6; &nbsp; Exodus 3:21 &nbsp;Exodus 3:21 f) and commission (&nbsp; Exodus 4:17 f., &nbsp; Exodus 4:27 &nbsp;Exodus 4:27 f.). Obeying, he demands that Israel he freed (&nbsp; Exodus 5:1 f, &nbsp; Exodus 5:4 ) in order to worship their God on this mountain a greater distance than three days’ journey. E [Note: Elohist.] ’s account of the plagues has survived merely in fragments, but from these it would appear that Moses speaks only once to Pharaoh, and that the plagues follow his mere gesture while the miraculous element is heightened (&nbsp; Exodus 7:15; &nbsp; Exodus 7:17 b, &nbsp; Exodus 7:20 b, &nbsp; Exodus 7:23 , &nbsp; Exodus 9:22-25 , &nbsp; Exodus 10:12-13 a, &nbsp; Exodus 10:14 a, &nbsp; Exodus 10:15 b, &nbsp; Exodus 10:20-23; &nbsp; Exodus 10:27 ). The Israelites, however, have no immunity except from the darkness. The Exodus is deliberate, since the people have time to borrow from their neighbours (&nbsp; Exodus 11:1-3 , &nbsp; Exodus 12:35 f.). </p> <p> B. <em> The Exodus </em> </p> <p> According to J [Note: Jahwist.] , an unarmed host is guided by the pillar of fire and cloud (&nbsp;Exodus 13:21 f.). Pharaoh pursues to recover his slaves (&nbsp; Exodus 14:5 f.), and when the people are dismayed, Moses encourages them (&nbsp; Exodus 14:10-14; &nbsp; Exodus 14:19 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:20 b.). An east wind drives back the water, so that the [[Israelites]] are able to cross during the night (&nbsp; Exodus 14:21 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:24-25 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:27 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:28 f., &nbsp; Exodus 14:30 f.) but the water returns to overwhelm the Egyptians. Israel offers thanks in a hymn of praise (&nbsp; Exodus 15:1 ); but soon in the wilderness tempts Jahweh by murmuring for water (&nbsp; Exodus 15:22-25 a, &nbsp; Exodus 15:27 , &nbsp; Exodus 17:3; &nbsp; Exodus 17:2 b, &nbsp; Exodus 17:7 ). </p> <p> According to E [Note: Elohist.] , an armed body march out in so leisurely a fashion that they are able to bring Joseph’s bones. For fear of the [[Philistines]] they avoid the route of the isthmus (&nbsp;Exodus 13:17-19 ). Pharaoh pursues (&nbsp; Exodus 14:9 a, &nbsp; Exodus 14:10 b.). but the people, protected by an angel, cross when Moses lifts his rod (&nbsp; Exodus 14:15 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:16 a, &nbsp; Exodus 14:19 a, &nbsp; Exodus 14:20 a, &nbsp; Exodus 14:25 a, &nbsp; Exodus 14:29 ). The women celebrate the escape (&nbsp; Exodus 15:2-18; &nbsp; Exodus 15:20 f.); and in the wilderness Jahweh tests Israel, whether they can live on a daily provision from Him (&nbsp; Exodus 16:4; &nbsp; Exodus 16:15 a, &nbsp; Exodus 16:19 a, &nbsp; Exodus 16:16 a, &nbsp; Exodus 16:19-21 , &nbsp; Exodus 16:35 a). Water, for which they murmur, is brought by Moses striking the rock with his rod (&nbsp; Exodus 17:1 b, &nbsp; Exodus 17:2 a, &nbsp; Exodus 17:4-7 b). Jethro visits and advises Moses (ch. 18 [in the main from E [Note: Elohist.] ]). The condition of the account of the journey between the Red Sea and Sinai, and the fact that events of a later date have certainly come into P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] ’s account, make it likely that JE [Note: Jewish Encyclopedia.] had very little on this stage, the account of which was amplified with material from the wilderness journey after Sinai. </p> <p> C. <em> At Sinai </em> [here the accounts are exceptionally difficult to disentangle, and the results correspondingly tentative]. </p> <p> According to J [Note: Jahwist.] , Jahweh descends on Sinai in lire (&nbsp;Exodus 19:2 b, &nbsp; Exodus 19:18 ), and commands the people to remain afar off, while the consecrated priests approach (&nbsp; Exodus 19:11 b, &nbsp; Exodus 19:12; &nbsp; Exodus 19:20-22; &nbsp; Exodus 19:24 f.). Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and 70 elders ascend (&nbsp; Exodus 24:1 f.) and celebrate a covenant feast (&nbsp; Exodus 19:9-11 ). Moses then goes up alone to receive the Ten Words on tables which he himself has hewn, and remaining 40 days and 40 nights receives also the Book of the [[Covenant]] (ch. 34) [J [Note: Jahwist.] ’s statement as to the 40 days has been omitted in favour of E [Note: Elohist.] ’s, but its presence in his account can be inferred from references in &nbsp; Exodus 34:1; &nbsp; Exodus 34:4 ]. Ch. 34 is also inserted at this point, because its present position is eminently unsuitable after the peremptory command in J [Note: Jahwist.] and E [Note: Elohist.] to leave Sinai (&nbsp; Exodus 32:34 , &nbsp; Exodus 33:1-3 ). Hearing from Jahweh of the rebellion (&nbsp; Exodus 32:7-12; &nbsp; Exodus 32:14 ), Moses intercedes for forgiveness, and descends to quell the revolt with help from the [[Levites]] (&nbsp; Exodus 32:25-29 ). He further intercedes that Jahweh should still lead His people, and obtains a promise of the [[Divine]] presence (&nbsp; Exodus 33:1; &nbsp; Exodus 33:3; &nbsp; Exodus 33:12-23 ). This was probably followed by &nbsp; Numbers 10:29 ff. The Law he deposits in an ark which must already have been prepared. </p> <p> J [Note: Jahwist.] ’s law (ch. 34) is the outcome of the earliest effort to embody the essential observances of the Jahweh religion. The feasts are agricultural festivals without the historical significance given them in Deuteronomy, and the observances are of a ceremonial character, for, according to J [Note: Jahwist.] , it is the priests who are summoned to Sinai. Efforts have been frequently made (since Goethe suggested it) to prove that this is J [Note: Jahwist.] ’s decalogue a ceremonial decalogue. Any division into 10 laws, however, has always an artificial character. </p> <p> According to E [Note: Elohist.] . Jahweh descends in a cloud before the whole people (&nbsp;Exodus 19:3-11 a), whom Moses therefore sanctifies (&nbsp; Exodus 19:14-17 ). They hear Jahweh utter the [[Decalogue]] (&nbsp; Exodus 19:19 , &nbsp; Exodus 20:1-17 ), but, as they are afraid (&nbsp; Exodus 20:18-21 ), the further revelation with its covenant is delivered to Moses alone (&nbsp; Exodus 20:22 to &nbsp; Exodus 23:33 in part). The people, however, assent to its terms (&nbsp; Exodus 24:3-8 ). Moses ascends the Mount with Joshua to receive the stone tables, on which Jahweh has inscribed the Decalogue (&nbsp; Exodus 24:12-15 a), and remains 40 days (&nbsp; Exodus 24:18 b) to receive further commands. He returns with the tables (&nbsp; Exodus 31:18 b), to discover and deal with the outbreak of idolatry (&nbsp; Exodus 32:1-6; &nbsp; Exodus 32:16-24 ). On his intercession he receives a promise of angelic guidance (&nbsp; Exodus 32:30-35 ). From verses in ch. 33 (&nbsp; Exodus 32:4; &nbsp; Exodus 32:6-11 ) which belong to E [Note: Elohist.] and from &nbsp; Deuteronomy 10:3; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 10:5 (based on E [Note: Elohist.] ), this account related the making of an ark and Tent of Meeting, the latter adorned with the people’s discarded ornaments. When JE [Note: Jewish Encyclopedia.] was combined with P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , this narrative, being superfluous alongside &nbsp; Exodus 32:25 ff., was omitted. </p> <p> E [Note: Elohist.] ’s account thus contains three of the four collections of laws found in Exodus, for 21 23 consists of two codes, a civil (&nbsp;Exodus 21:1 to &nbsp; Exodus 22:16 ) and a ceremonial (&nbsp; Exodus 22:17 to &nbsp; Exodus 23:33 [roughly]). Probably the ceremonial section was originally E [Note: Elohist.] ’s counterpart to ch. 34 in J [Note: Jahwist.] , while the civil section may have stood in connexion with ch. 18. As it now stands, E [Note: Elohist.] is the prophetic version of the law-giving. The basis of the Jahweh religion is the Decalogue with its clearly marked moral and spiritual character. (Cf. art. Deuteronomy.) This is delivered not to the priests (like ch. 34 in J [Note: Jahwist.] ), but to the whole people. When, however, the people shrink back, Moses, the prophetic intermediary, receives the further law from Jahweh. Yet the ceremonial and civil codes have a secondary place, and are parallel. The Decalogue, a common possession of the whole nation, with its appeal to the people’s moral and religious sense, is fundamental. On it all the national institutions, whether civil or ceremonial, are based. Civil and ceremonial law have equal authority and equal value. As yet, however, the principles which inform the Decalogue are not brought into conscious connexion with the codes which control and guide the national life. The Book of Deuteronomy proves how at a later date the effort was made to penetrate the entire legislation with the spirit of the Decalogue, and to make this a means by which the national life was guided by the national faith. </p> <p> The following view of the history of the codes is deserving of notice. E [Note: Elohist.] before its union with J [Note: Jahwist.] contained three of these codes: the Decalogue as the basis of the Covenant; the Book of the Covenant, leading up to the renewal of the Covenant; and the Book of Judgments, which formed part of Moses’ parting address on the plains of Moab. The editor who combined J [Note: Jahwist.] and E [Note: Elohist.] , wishing to retain J [Note: Jahwist.] ’s version of the Covenant, used it for the account of the renewal of the Covenant, and united E [Note: Elohist.] ’s Book of the Covenant, thus displaced, with the Decalogue as the basis of the first Covenant. The editor who combined JE [Note: Jewish Encyclopedia.] with D [Note: Deuteronomist.] , displaced E [Note: Elohist.] ’s Book of Judgments in favour of Deuteronomy, which he made Moses’ parting address; and combined the displaced Book of Judgments with the Book of the Covenant. </p> <p> The view represented in the article, however, explains the phenomena adequately, is much simpler, and requires fewer hypotheses. </p> <p> A. C. Welch. </p>

&nbsp;Deuteronomy 26:5-9&nbsp;1 Samuel 12:6-8&nbsp;Psalm 78:1&nbsp;Psalm 105:1&nbsp;Psalm 106:1&nbsp;Psalm 114:1&nbsp;Psalm 135:1&nbsp;Psalm 136:1&nbsp;Isaiah 11:16&nbsp;Jeremiah 2:6&nbsp;Jeremiah 7:22-25&nbsp;Ezekiel 20:6&nbsp;20:10&nbsp;Hosea 2:15&nbsp;Hosea 11:1&nbsp;Amos 2:10&nbsp;Amos 3:1&nbsp;Micah 6:4&nbsp;Haggai 2:5&nbsp;Luke 22:1-20&nbsp;1 Corinthians 11:23-26 <p> Historicity The only explicit account of the Exodus we have is the biblical account (&nbsp;Exodus 1-15 ). No extra-biblical witnesses directly speak of the sojourn of Israel's ancestors in the land of the Nile. However, Egyptian sources do confirm the general situation that we find in the end of Genesis and the beginning of the Book of Exodus. There are many reports in Egyptian sources of nomadic people called <i> Habiru </i> coming into Egypt from the east fleeing from famine. Extra-biblical evidence from Egypt indicates that Egypt used slave labor in building projects (&nbsp; Exodus 1:11 ). At one time the land in Egypt was owned by many landholders; but after the reign of the [[Hyksos]] kings the Pharaoh owned most of the land, and the people were serfs of the king (&nbsp;Genesis 47:20 ). Old [[Testament]] scholars accept the essential historicity of the Exodus. </p> <p> The Nature of the [[Event]] Some scholars see the Exodus as the miraculous deliverance of the people of God from the grip of Pharaoh's army at the Red Sea. Others see it as an escape across a sprawling wilderness and sweltering desert of a small mixed band of border slaves. Some argue that the military language in the account indicates that the event was a military skirmish. Such language may be the language of holy war. The people of Israel went up from the land of Egypt “equipped for battle” (&nbsp;Exodus 13:18 RSV), but God did not lead them by the way of the Philistines, which was the closest way but it was also the way of war. God thought that if Israel saw war she would repent and return to Egypt (&nbsp; Exodus 13:17 ). God is called a “man of war” in &nbsp;Exodus 15:3 . </p> <p> The [[Bible]] stresses that the Exodus was the work of God. God brought the plagues on Egypt (&nbsp;Exodus 7:1-5 ). The miracle at the sea was never treated merely as a natural event or as Israel's victory alone. In the earliest recorded response to the event Miriam sang, “Sing to the Lord, for he has triumphed gloriously; the horse and his rider he has thrown into the sea” (&nbsp;Exodus 15:21 RSV). </p> <p> [[Elements]] of the wonderful and the ordinary contributed to the greatest Old Testament events. The natural and supernatural combined to produce God's deliverance. The Exodus was both miraculous and historical. An air of mystery surrounds this event as all miraculous events. We are not told when the Exodus occurred. We do not know precisely where it happened since the [[Hebrew]] term may have meant the Red Sea as we know it, one of its tributaries, or a “sea of reeds” whose location is unknown. We do not know who or how many may have been involved. The record makes it clear that God delivered Israel from bondage because of His covenant with the patriarchs and because He desired to redeem His people (&nbsp;Exodus 6:2-8 ). </p> <p> The Date of the Exodus The Bible does not give an incontrovertible date for the Exodus. &nbsp;1 Kings 6:1 says, “In the four hundred and eightieth year after the children of Israel were come out of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel, in the month of Zif, which is the second month, that he began to build the house of the Lord.” But this verse refers primarily to the beginning of the building of Solomon's [[Temple]] and only in a general way to the time of the Exodus. We do not know the precise dates of Solomon's reign. If we use 961 B.C. as the beginning of Solomon's reign, his fourth year would be 957 B.C. If we take the 480 years of &nbsp; 1 Kings 6:1 literally, the Exodus would be dated in 1437 B.C. &nbsp; Exodus 1:11 says, however, that the Israelites in Egypt built the store cities of [[Pithom]] and [[Raamses]] for Pharaoh. [[Evidently]] the name Raamses was not used in Egypt before 1300 B.C. If one of the store cities was named for a king by that name, the Exodus could not have happened before 1300 B.C. Thus some scholars believe the Exodus must have taken place after 1300 B.C. </p> <p> Another difficulty in dating these events is that although the term “pharaoh” is used over a hundred times in the first fifteen chapters of Exodus to refer to the king of Egypt, the title is always anonymous. No personal name of any individual pharaoh is used. The text does not indicate the identity of the pharaoh of the oppression nor the one of the Exodus. Old Testament scholars have generally agreed that the Exodus occurred either during the eighteenth (1570-1310 B.C.) or nineteenth (1310-1200 B.C.) dynasties. </p> <p> It has been the opinion of most scholars since the rise of modern [[Egyptology]] that the Exodus likely occurred during the reign of Ramses II in the nineteenth dynasty about 1270 B.C., although many Bible students attempt to date it in the earlier eighteenth dynasty about 1447 B.C. Several variations of these dates have been suggested, ranging all the way back to 2000 B.C. None of these attempts to redate the Exodus has gained widespread acceptance. Perhaps the best estimate of the date for the Exodus remains about 1270 B.C., but this is far from a proven fact. </p> <p> The Number Involved in the Exodus In our English Bibles &nbsp;Exodus 12:37 says, “And the children of Israel journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand on foot, that were men, besides children.” For a very long time and for various reasons some Bible scholars have asked: Should the number 600,000 be understood literally? It seems to be an excessively large number. &nbsp; Exodus 23:29-30 and &nbsp; Deuteronomy 7:22 suggest the number was so small that the people would be endangered by wild beasts. Many scholars believe the Hebrew word eleph, usually translated “thousand,” can also be translated “clan” or “fighting unit.” Perhaps this is the meaning in &nbsp; Exodus 12:17 . Assuming this, conservative scholars have estimated the number at between 6,000,72,000. We may not know the exact date, route, or number of people in the Exodus. But the significant thing is we know and believe that such an event happened and that we interpret it as a saving act of God. </p> <p> The Exodus was the work of God. It was also a historical event involving a superpower nation and an oppressed people. God acted redemptively in power, freedom, and love. When the kingdom of God did not come, the later prophets began to look for a second Exodus. That expectation was fulfilled spiritually in Christ's redemptive act. </p> <p> Ralph L. Smith </p>

<p> Israel’s escape from slavery in Egypt is commonly known as the exodus (meaning ‘a going out’). The most likely date for the event is about 1280 BC, and the historical account of the event is given in the book of Exodus (see EXODUS, BOOK OF). </p> <p> '''Significance of the exodus''' </p> <p> The actual going out from Egypt was but one part of a series of events that gave the exodus its great significance in Israel’s history. It was preceded by God’s judgment on Egypt through a number of plagues (Exodus 1; Exodus 2; Exodus 3; Exodus 4; Exodus 5; Exodus 6; Exodus 7; Exodus 8; Exodus 9; Exodus 10; Exodus 11; see PLAGUE); it came about through the decisive judgment on Passover night and the subsequent crossing of the Red Sea (Exodus 12; Exodus 13; Exodus 14; Exodus 15; see PASSOVER; RED SEA); and it was followed by the covenant ceremony at Mt Sinai, where God formally established Israel as his people (Exodus 16; Exodus 17; Exodus 18; Exodus 19; Exodus 20; Exodus 21; Exodus 22; Exodus 23; Exodus 24; see COVENANT). After giving them his law, God directed them to the new homeland he had promised them in Canaan. </p> <p> Throughout the years that followed, Israelites looked back to the exodus as the decisive event in their history. This was not just because the exodus led to the establishment of Israel’s national independence, but more importantly because it showed them the sort of person their God was. Yahweh revealed his character, showing that he was a God who redeems (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 15:15; &nbsp;2 Samuel 7:23; &nbsp;Nehemiah 1:8-10; &nbsp;Micah 6:4; cf. &nbsp;Exodus 6:6-8; &nbsp;Exodus 15:2; &nbsp;Exodus 15:13; see REDEMPTION). The exodus was a sign to the people of this Redeemer-God’s love (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 4:37; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:8; &nbsp;Hosea 11:1), power (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 9:26; &nbsp;2 Kings 17:36; &nbsp;Psalms 81:10) and justice (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 6:21-22; &nbsp;Joshua 24:5-7). </p> <p> In demonstrating the character of God, the exodus gave assurance to God’s people that they could trust in him. At the same time it reminded them that he required them to be loyal, obedient and holy (&nbsp;Leviticus 11:45; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 4:37-40; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 5:6-7; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:7-11; cf. &nbsp;Hosea 11:1-4). </p> <p> '''The pattern repeated''' </p> <p> Even with the destruction of [[Jerusalem]] in 587 BC and the subsequent captivity in Babylon, God’s people never forgot his redeeming power. They looked for a ‘second exodus’ when he would again deliver them from bondage. They prayed that as he had first brought them out of Egypt and into the promised land, so he would now bring them out of [[Babylon]] and back to their homeland (&nbsp;Isaiah 43:1-7; &nbsp;Isaiah 43:14-21; &nbsp;Isaiah 48:20-21; &nbsp;Isaiah 49:25-26; &nbsp;Isaiah 51:9-11; &nbsp;Isaiah 52:11-12; &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:10-12; &nbsp;Micah 7:14-17). </p> <p> The exodus theme is prominent also in the New Testament. The word ‘exodus’ (RSV: ‘departure’) is used of Jesus’ death, by which he delivers people from the bondage of sin (&nbsp;Luke 9:31; cf. &nbsp;Colossians 1:13; &nbsp;Hebrews 2:14-15; see REDEMPTION). As the Passover lamb, he died in the place of those under judgment and so achieved redemption for them (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 5:7; &nbsp;1 Peter 1:18-19; see PASSOVER). Those redeemed through Christ can therefore sing the song that the redeemed Israelites sang, but with new meaning (&nbsp;Revelation 15:2-4; cf. &nbsp;Exodus 15:1-21). They must also heed the lessons that the Israelites failed to learn in the wilderness years that followed their deliverance (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 10:1-11; &nbsp;Hebrews 3:7-19). </p>

<p> '''Exodus''' (ĕx'o-dŭs), going out [of Egypt]. The second book in the Old Testament. Its author was Moses. It was written probably during the forty years' wanderings in the wilderness. The first part of the book gives an account of the great increase of Jacob's posterity in the land of Egypt, and their oppression under a new dynasty, which occupied the throne after the death of Joseph; the birth, education, flight and return of Moses; the attempts to prevail upon Pharaoh to let the Israelites go; the signs and wonders, ending in the death of the first-born, by means of which the deliverance of Israel from the land of bondage is at length accomplished, the institution of the passover, and the departure put of Egypt and the journey of the Israelites to Mount Sinai. The second part gives a sketch of the early history of Israel as a nation, set apart, and in its religious and political life consecrated to the service of God. </p>

<p> from εξ , <em> out, </em> and οδος , <em> a way, </em> the name of the second book of Moses, and is so called in the Greek version because it relates to the departure of the Israelites out of Egypt. It comprehends the history of about a hundred and forty-five years; and the principal events contained in it are, the bondage of the Israelites in Egypt, and their miraculous deliverance by the hand of Moses; their entrance into the wilderness of Sinai; the promulgation of the law, and the building of the tabernacle. See PENTATEUCH . </p>

<p> '''(1):''' ''' (''' n.) The second of the Old Testament, which contains the narrative of the departure of the Israelites from Egypt. </p> <p> '''(2):''' ''' (''' n.) A going out; particularly (the Exodus), the going out or journey of the Israelites from Egypt under the conduct of Moses; and hence, any large migration from a place. </p>

<p> Exo´dus. The intention of Jehovah to deliver the Israelites from Egyptian bondage was made known to Moses from the burning bush at Mount Horeb, while he kept the flock of Jethro, his father-in-law. Under the divine direction Moses, in conjunction with Aaron, assembled the elders of the nation, and acquainted them with the gracious design of Heaven. After this they had an interview with Pharaoh, and requested permission for the people to go, in order to hold a feast unto God in the wilderness. The result was, not only refusal, but the doubling of all the burdens which the Israelites had previously had to bear. Moses hereupon, suffering reproach from his people, consults Jehovah, who assures him that he would compel Pharaoh 'to drive them out of his land.' 'I will rid you out of their bondage, and I will redeem you with a stretched out arm and with great judgments' ( to ). Then ensue a series of miracles, commonly called the plagues of Egypt (Exodus 6-12) [PLAGUE]. At last, overcome by the calamities sent upon him, Pharaoh yielded all that was demanded, saying, 'Rise up, and get you forth from among my people, both ye and the children of Israel; and go serve the Lord as ye have said; also take your flocks and your herds, and be gone.' Thus driven out, the Israelites, to the number of about 600,000 adults, besides children, left the land, attended by a mixed multitude, with their flocks and herds, even very much cattle (, sq.). Being 'thrust out' of the country, they had not time to prepare for themselves suitable provisions, and therefore they baked unleavened cakes of the dough which they brought forth out of Egypt. </p> <p> On the night of the self-same day which terminated a period of 430 years, during which they had been in Egypt, were they led forth from Rameses, or [[Goshen]] [GOSHEN]. They are not said to have crossed the river Nile, whence we may infer that Goshen lay on the eastern side of the river. Their first station was at Succoth . The nearest way into the Land of [[Promise]] was through the land of the Philistines. This route would have required them to keep on in a north-east direction. It pleased their divine conductor, however, not to take this path, lest, being opposed by the Philistines, the Israelites should turn back at the sight of war into Egypt. If, then, [[Philistia]] was to be avoided, the course would lie nearly direct east, or south-east. [[Pursuing]] this route, 'the armies' come to Etham, their next station, 'in the edge of the wilderness' (, sq.). Here they encamped. Dispatch, however, was desirable. They journey day and night, not without divine guidance, for 'the Lord went before them by day in a pillar of a cloud, to lead them the way; and by night in a pillar of fire, to give them light; to go by day and night.' This special guidance could not well have been meant merely to show the way through the desert; for it can hardly be supposed that in so great a multitude no persons knew the road over a country lying near to that in which they and their ancestors had dwelt, and which did not extend more than some forty miles across. The divine guides were doubtless intended to conduct the Israelites in that way and to that spot where the hand of God would be most signally displayed in their rescue and in the destruction of Pharaoh. 'I will be honored upon Pharaoh and upon all his host, that the Egyptians may know that I am the Lord.' For this purpose Moses is directed of God to 'speak unto the children of Israel that they turn and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, over against Baal-zephon; before it shall ye encamp by the sea; and they did so' . We have already seen reason to think that the direction of the Israelites was to the east or south-east; this turning must have been in the latter direction, else they would have been carried down towards the land of the Philistines, which they were to avoid. Let the word 'turn' be marked; it is a strong term, and seems to imply that the line of the march was bent considerably towards the south, or the interior of the land. The children of Israel then are now encamped before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, also 'by the sea.' Their position was such that they were 'entangled in the land, the wilderness had shut them in.' </p> <p> A new scene is now laid open. News is carried to Pharaoh which leads him to see that the reason assigned (namely, a sacrifice in the wilderness) is but a pretext; that the Israelites had really fled from his yoke; and also that, through some (to him) unaccountable error, they had gone towards the south-east, had reached the sea, and were hemmed in on all sides. He summons his troops and sets out in pursuit—'all the horses and chariots of Pharaoh, and his horsemen and his army;' and he 'overtook them encamping by the sea, beside Pi-hahiroth, before Baal-zephon' . The Israelites see their pursuing enemy approach, and are alarmed. Moses assures them of divine aid. A promise was given as of God that the Israelites should go on dry ground through the midst of the sea; and that the Egyptians, attempting the same path, should be destroyed: 'and I will get Me honor upon Pharaoh and all his host, upon his chariots and his horsemen' . Here a very extraordinary event takes place: 'The angel of God, which went before the camp of Israel, removed and went behind them; and the pillar of the cloud went from before their face and stood behind them; and it came between the camp of the Egyptians and the camp of Israel; and it was a cloud and darkness to them, but it gave light by night to these; so that the one came not near the other all the night' . Then comes the division of the waters, which we give in the words of the sacred historian: 'And Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and the Lord caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all that night, and made the sea dry land, and the waters were divided. And the children of Israel went into the midst of the sea upon the dry ground; and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand and on their left. And the Egyptians pursued and went in after them to the midst of the sea, even all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots, and his horsemen.' Delays are now occasioned to the Egyptians; their chariot-wheels are supernaturally taken off, so that 'in the morning-watch they drave them heavily.' The Egyptians are troubled; they urge each other to fly from the face of Israel. 'Then Moses stretched forth his hand over the sea, and the sea returned to his strength when the morning appeared; and the Egyptians fled against it; and the Lord overthrew the Egyptians in the midst of the sea. And the waters returned and covered the chariots and the horsemen and all the host of Pharaoh that came into the sea after them; there remained not as much as one of them. But the children of Israel walked upon dry land in the midst of the sea, and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand and on their left. And Israel saw the Egyptians dead upon the sea-shore; and the people feared the Lord, and believed the Lord and his servant Moses' . </p> <p> Such is the bearing and import of the sacred narrative. If any intelligent reader, knowing nothing of the theories of learned men, were to peruse the account given in Exodus with a map before him, he would, we doubt not, be led to conclude that the route of the Israelites lay towards the south-east, up the Red Sea, and that the spot where they crossed was at a place encircled by mountains on the side of the desert, and fronted by deep and impassable waters; he would equally conclude that the writer in Exodus intended to represent the rescue as from first to last the work of God. Had the Israelites been at a place which was fordable under any natural influences, Pharaoh's undertaking was absurd. He knew that they were entangled—mountain behind and on either hand, while the deep sea was before them. Therefore he felt sure of his prey, and set out in pursuit. Nothing but the divine interposition foiled and punished him, at the same time redeeming the Israelites. And this view, which the unlearned but intelligent reader would be led to take, involves, in fact, all that is important in the case. But a dislike of the miraculous has had an influence, and erudition has tried to fix the precise spot: whence have arisen views and theories which are more or less discordant with the Scripture, or are concerned with comparative trifles. So far as aversion to miracle has had an influence in the hypotheses which have been given, all we shall remark is, that in a case which is so evidently represented as the sphere of miracle, there is but one alternative—they who do not admit the miracle must reject the narrative; and far better would it be to do so frankly than to construct hypotheses which are for the most part, if not altogether, purely arbitrary. A narrative obviously miraculous (in the intention of the writer) can be explained satisfactorily on no rationalistic principles: this is not to expound but to 'wrest' the Scriptures; a position which, in our opinion, has been fully established, in relation to the Gospels, against the whole of the rationalistic school of interpretation. </p> <p> The account now given must, as being derived immediately from the Scripture, be in the main correct. If the authority is denied, this can be done effectually by no other means than by disproving in general the authority of the books whence it is derived; and it may with truth be affirmed, that no view opposed to that given can possess greater claims on our credit, while any mere skeptical opinion must rest on its own intrinsic probability, contested, so far as it opposes the Scripture, by scriptural authority. </p> <p> When, however, we descend from generals to particulars, and attempt to ascertain precise localities and determine details, diversity of opinion may easily arise, and varying degrees of probability only are likely to attend the investigation. For instance, the immediate spot which Moses proposed to reach was, we know, on the Red Sea; but the precise line which he took depended of course on the place whence he set out. With difference of opinion as to the spot where the Hebrews had their rendezvous, there cannot be agreement as to the route they followed. </p> <p> The position of Goshen, where the Israelites were settled, we shall endeavor to fix in another article. It is enough here to say, that it was on the eastern side of the Nile, probably in the province of Esh-Shurkiyeh. Rameses was the place of rendezvous. The direct route thence to the Red Sea was along the valley of the ancient canal. By this way the distance was about thirty-five miles. From the vicinity of Cairo, however, there runs a range of hills eastward to the Red Sea, the western extremity of which, not far from Cairo, is named Jebel Mokattem; the eastern extremity is termed Jebel-Attaka, which, with its promontory Ras Attaka, runs into the Red Sea. Between the two extremes, somewhere about the middle of the range, is an opening which affords a road for caravans. Two routes offered themselves here. [[Supposing]] that the actual starting-point lay nearer Cairo, the Israelites might strike in from the north of the range of hills, at the opening just mentioned, and pursue the ordinary caravan road which leads from [[Cairo]] to Suez; or they might go southward from Mokattem, through the Wady el Tih, that is, the Valley of Wandering, through which also a road, though less used, runs to Suez. According to Niebuhr, they took the first; according to ancient tradition, they took the last. Sicard found traces of the Israelites in the valley. He held Rameses to be the starting-point, and Rameses he placed about six miles from ancient Cairo, where Bezatin is now found. Here is a capacious sandy plain, on which Sicard thinks the Israelites assembled on the morning when they began their journey. In this vicinity a plain is still found, which the Arabs call the Jews' Cemetery, and where, from an indefinite period, the Jews have buried their dead. In the Mokattem chain is a hill, a part of which is called Mejanat Musa, 'Moses' Station.' On another hill in the vicinity ruins are found, which the Arabs name Meravad Musa, 'Moses' Delight.' Thus several things seem to carry the mind back to the time of the Hebrew legislator. Through the valley which leads from Bezatin (the Valley of Wandering) to the Red Sea, Sicard traveled in three days. He reckons the length to be twenty-six hours, which, if we give two miles to each hour, would make the distance fifty-two miles. The valley running pretty much in a plain surface would afford a convenient passage to the mixed bands of Israelites. About eighteen miles from Bezatin you meet with Gendelhy, a plain with a fountain. The name signifies a military station, and in this Sicard finds the Succoth (tents) of Exodus, the first station of Moses. The haste with which they left (were driven out) would enable them to reach this place at nightfall of their first day's march. Sicard places their second station, Etham, in the plain Ramliyeh, eighteen miles from Gendelhy and sixteen from the sea. From this plain is a pass, four miles in length, so narrow that not more than twenty men can go abreast. To avoid this, which would have caused dangerous delay, the order was given to turn . Etham is said to be on the edge of the wilderness. Jablonski says the word means terminus maris, the termination or boundary of the sea. Now, in the plain where Sicard fixes Etham (not to be confounded with the Eastern Etham, through which afterwards the Israelites traveled three days , is the spot where the waters divide which run to the Nile and to the [[Gulf]] of Suez, and Etham is therefore truly the boundary of the sea. Here the Israelites received command to turn and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, over against Baal-zephon. Pi-hahiroth (the mouth of the hiding-places) Sicard identifies with Thuarek (small caves), which is the name still given to three or four salt springs of the plain Baideah, on the south side of mount Attaka, which last Sicard identifies with Baal-zephon, and which is the northern boundary of the plain Baideah, while Kuiabeh (Migdol) is its southern limit. The pass which leads to Suez, between Attaka and the sea, is very narrow, and could be easily stopped by the Egyptians. In this plain of Baideah, Pharaoh had the Israelites hemmed in on all sides. This then, according to all appearance, is the spot where the passage through the sea was effected. Such is the judgment of Sicard and of Raumer. It cannot be denied that this route satisfies all the conditions of the case. [[Equally]] does the spot correspond with the miraculous narrative furnished by holy writ. </p> <p> It is no small corroboration of the view now given from Sicard and Raumer, that in substance it has the support of Josephus, of whose account we shall, from its importance, give an abridgment. The Hebrews, he says (Antiq. ii. 15), took their journey by Latopolis, where Babylon was built afterwards when [[Cambyses]] laid Egypt waste. As they went in haste, on the third day they came to a place called Baal-zephon, on the Red Sea. Moses led them this way in order that the Egyptians might be punished should they venture in pursuit, and also because the Hebrews had a quarrel with the Philistines. When the Egyptians had overtaken the Hebrews they prepared to fight them, and by their multitude drove them into a narrow place; for the number that went in pursuit was 600 chariots, 50,000 horsemen, and 200,000 infantry, all armed. They also seized the passages, shutting the Hebrews up between inaccessible precipices and the sea; for there was on each side a ridge of mountains that terminated at the sea, which were impassable, and obstructed their flight. Moses, however, prayed to God, and smote the sea with his rod, when the waters parted, and gave the Israelites free passage. The Egyptians at first supposed them distracted; but when they saw the Israelites proceed in safety, they followed. As soon as the entire Egyptian army was in the channel the sea closed, and the pursuers perished amid torrents of rain and the most terrific thunder and lightning. </p> <p> The opposition to the scriptural account has been of two kinds. Some writers (Wolfenb. Fragm. p. 64, sq.) have at once declared the whole fabulous; a course which appears to have been taken as early as the time of [[Josephus]] (Antiq. ii. 16, 5). Others have striven to explain the facts by the aid of mere natural causes; for which see Winer, Handwörterbuch, in Meer Rothes. A third mode of explanation is pursued by those who do not deny miracles as such, and yet, with no small inconsistency, seek to reduce this particular miracle to the smallest dimensions. Writers who see in the deliverance of the Hebrews the hand of God and the fulfillment of the divine purposes, follow the account in [[Scripture]] implicitly, placing the passage at Ras Attaka, at the termination of the Valley of Wandering; others, who go on rationalistic principles, find the sea here too wide and too deep for their purpose, and endeavor to fix the passage a little to the south or the north of Suez. In answer to this opinion, we shall content ourselves with quoting the testimony of one or two travelers who have visited and carefully examined the spot. </p> <p> The following are the remarks of Mr. Blumhardt, who passed through Suez (October, 1835), in his missionary visit to Abyssinia. 'The Red Sea at Suez is exceedingly narrow, and in my opinion it cannot be that the Israelites here experienced the power and love of God in their passage through the Red Sea. The breadth of the sea is at present scarcely a quarter of an hour by Suez. Now if this be the part which they crossed, how is it possible that all the army of Pharaoh, with his chariots, could have been drowned? I am rather inclined to believe that 'the Israelites experienced that wonderful deliverance about thirty miles lower down. This opinion is also strengthened by most of the Eastern churches, and the Arabs, who believe that the Israelites reached the opposite shore at a place called Gebel Pharaon, which on that account has received this name. If we accept this opinion, it agrees very well with the Scripture.' Still more important is the evidence of Dr. Olin (Travels in the East, New York, 1843). He agrees with Robinson in fixing Etham 'on the border of the wilderness which stretches along the eastern shore of the arm of the sea which runs up above Suez.' At this point he says the Hebrews were commanded to turn. They turned directly southward and marched to an exposed position, hemmed in completely by the sea, the desert, and Mount Attaka. A false confidence was thus excited in Pharaoh, and the deliverance was made the more signal and the more impressive alike to the Israelites and to Egypt. Admitting the possibility that the sea at Suez may have been wider and deeper than it is now, Olin remarks, 'it must still have been very difficult, if not impossible, for the army of Israel, encumbered with infants and aged people, as well as with flocks, to pass over (near Suez) in face of their enemies.' Besides, the peculiarities of the place must have had a tendency to disguise the character and impair the effect of the miracle. The passage made at the intervention of Moses was kept open all night. The Egyptians followed the Hebrews to the midst of the sea, when the sea engulfed them. 'The entire night seems to have been consumed in the passage. It is hardly credible that so much time should have been consumed in crossing near Suez, to accomplish which one or two hours would have been sufficient.' 'Nor is it conceivable that the large army of the Egyptians should have been at once within the banks of so narrow a channel. The more advanced troops would have reached the opposite shore before the rear had entered the sea; and yet we know that all Pharaoh's chariots and horsemen followed to the midst of the sea, and, together with all the host that came in after them, were covered with the returning waves' (i. 348). [[Preferring]] the position at Ras Attaka, Olin states that the gulf is here ten or twelve miles wide. 'The valley expands into a considerable plain, bounded by lofty precipitous mountains on the right and left, and by the sea in front, and is sufficiently ample to accommodate the vast number of human beings who composed the two armies.' 'An east wind would act almost directly across the gulf. It would be unable to cooperate with an ebb tide in removing the waters—no objection certainly if we admit the exercise of God's miraculous agency;' but a very great impediment in the way of any rationalistic hypothesis. 'The channel is wide enough to allow of the movements described by Moses, and the time, which embraced an entire night, was sufficient for the convenient march of a large army over such a distance.' 'The opinion which fixes the point of transit in the valley or wady south of Mount Attaka derives confirmation from the names still attached to the principal objects in this locality. Jebel Attaka means in the language of the Arabs “The Mount of Deliverance.” Badeah or Bedeah, the name this part of the valley, means “the Miraculous,” while Wady el Tih means “the Valley of Wanderings.” Pi-hahiroth, where Moses was commanded to encamp, is rendered by scholars “the mouth of Hahiroth,” which answers well to the deep gorge south of Attaka, but not at all to the broad plain about Suez.' </p> <p> Other parts of the line of march pursued by the Israelites will be found treated of under the heads [[Manna]] Sinai Wandering. </p>